Thursday, February 17, 2011

Maya stelae

Maya stelae (singular stela) are monuments that were fashioned by theMaya civilization of ancient Mesoamerica. They consist of tall sculpted stone shafts and are often associated with low circular stones referred to as altars, although their actual function is uncertain.[2] Many stelaewere sculpted in low relief,[3] although plain monuments are found throughout the Maya region.[4] The sculpting of these monuments spread throughout the Maya area during the Classic Period (250–900 AD),[2] and these pairings of sculpted stelae and circular altars are considered a hallmark of Classic Maya civilization.[5] The earliest dated stela to have been found in situ in the Maya lowlands was recovered from the great city of Tikal in Guatemala.[6] During the Classic Period almost every Maya kingdom in the southern lowlands raised stelae in its ceremonial centre.[4]

Stelae became closely associated with the concept of divine kingshipand declined at the same time as this institution. The production of stelae by the Maya had its origin around 400 BC and continued through to the end of the Classic Period, around 900 AD, although some monuments were reused in the Postclassic (c. 900–1521 AD). The major city of Calakmul in Mexico raised the greatest number of stelae known from any Maya city, numbering at least 166, although they are very poorly preserved.[7]

Hundreds of stelae have been recorded in the Maya region,[8] displaying a wide stylistic variation.[4] Many are upright slabs of limestone sculpted on one or more faces,[4] with available surfaces sculpted with figures carved in relief and with hieroglyphic text.[3] Stelae in a few sites display a much more three dimensional appearance where locally available stone permits, such as at Copán and Toniná.[4] Plain stelae do not appear to have been painted nor overlaid with stucco decoration,[9] but most Maya stelae were probably brightly painted in red, yellow, black, blue and other colours.[10]

Stelae were essentially stone banners raised to glorify the king and record his deeds,[11] although the earliest examples depict mythologicalscenes.[12] Imagery developed throughout the Classic Period, with Early Classic stelae (c. 250–600 AD) displaying non-Maya characteristics from the 4th century AD onwards, with the introduction of imagery linked to the central Mexican metropolis of Teotihuacan.[13] This influence receded in the 5th century although some minor Teotihuacan references continued to be used.[14] In the late 5th century, Maya kings began to use stelae to mark the end of calendrical cycles.[15] In the Late Classic (c. 600–900 AD), imagery linked to the Mesoamerican ballgamewas introduced, once again displaying influence from central Mexico.[16] By the Terminal Classic, the institution of divine kingship declined, and Maya kings began to be depicted with their subordinate lords.[17] As the Classic Period came to an end, stelae ceased to be erected, with the last known examples being raised in 909–910 AD.[18]

Source : http://en.wikipedia.org/


Wednesday, February 16, 2011

Climate of Minnesota

The climate of Minnesota is typical of a continental climate, with cold winters and hot summers. The state's location in the Upper Midwest allows it to experience some of the widest variety of weather in theUnited States, with each of the four seasons having its own distinct characteristics. The areas near Lake Superior in the Minnesota Arrowhead region experience weather unique from the rest of the state. The moderating effect of Lake Superior keeps the surrounding area relatively cooler in the summer and relatively warmer in the winter, giving that region more of a maritime climate. On the Köppen climate classification, the southern third of Minnesota—roughly from the Twin Cities region southward—falls in the hot summerhumid continental climate zone (Dfa), and the northern two-thirds of Minnesota falls in the warm summer humid continental climate zone (Dfb).

Winter in Minnesota is characterized by cold (below freezing) temperatures. Snow is the main form of winter precipitation, but freezing rain, ice, sleet, and occasionally rain are all possible during the winter months. Common storm systems include Alberta clippers or Panhandle hooks; some of which evolve intoblizzards. Annual snowfall extremes have ranged from over 170 inches (432 cm) in the rugged Superior Highlands of the North Shore to as little as 10 inches (25 cm) in southern Minnesota. Temperatures as low as −60 °F (−51 °C) have occurred during Minnesota winters. Spring is a time of major transition in Minnesota. Snowstorms are common early in the spring, but by late-spring as temperatures begin to moderate the state can experience tornado outbreaks, a risk which diminishes but does not cease through the summer and into the fall.

In summer, heat and humidity predominate in the south, while warm and less humid conditions are generally present in the north. These humid conditions help kick off thunderstorm activity 30–40 days per year. Summer high temperatures in Minnesota average in the mid-80s F (30 °C) in the south to the upper-70s F (25 °C) in the north, with temperatures as hot as 114 °F (46 °C) possible. The growing season in Minnesota varies from 90 days per year in the Iron Range to 160 days in southeast Minnesota. Tornadoes are possible in Minnesota from March through November, but the peak tornado month is June, followed by July, May, and August. The state averages 24 tornadoes per year. Minnesota is the driest state in the Midwest. Average annual precipitation across the state ranges from around 35 inches (890 mm) in the southeast to 20 inches (510 mm) in the northwest. Autumn weather in Minnesota is largely the reverse of spring weather. The jet stream—which tends to weaken in summer—begins to re-strengthen, leading to a quicker changing of weather patterns and an increased variability of temperatures. By late October and November these storm systems become strong enough to form major winter storms. Fall and spring are the windiest times of the year in Minnesota.

Because of its location in the center of North America Minnesota experiences temperature extremes characteristic of a continental climate, with cold winters and mild to hot summers in the south and frigid winters and generally cool summers in the north.[1] Each season has distinctive upper air patterns which bring different weather conditions with them. Being 1,000 miles (1,609 km) from any large body of water (with the exception of Lake Superior), Minnesota receives temperatures and precipitation that vary widely. It is far enough north to experience −60 °F (−51 °C) temperatures and blizzards during the winter months, but far enough south to experience 114 °F (46 °C) temperatures and tornado outbreaks in the summer.[2] The 174 degree Fahrenheit (97 °C) variation between Minnesota's highest and lowest temperature is the 11th largest variation of any U.S. state, and 3rd largest of any non-mountainous state (behind North Dakota and South Dakota).[3]

Minnesota is far from major sources of moisture and is in the transition zone between the moistEast and the arid Great Plains. Annual average precipitation across the state ranges from around 35 inches (890 mm) in the southeast to 20 inches (510 mm) in the northwest.[4] Snow is the main form of precipitation from November through March, while rain is the most common the rest of the year. Annual snowfall extremes have ranged from over 170 inches (432 cm) in the rugged Superior Highlands of the North Shore to as little as 2.3 inches (5.8 cm) in southern Minnesota.[5][6] It has snowed in Minnesota during every month with the exception of July, and the state averages 110 days per year with snow cover of an inch (2.5 cm) or greater.[7]


Lake Superior moderates the climate of those parts of Minnesota's Arrowhead Region near the shore. The lake acts as a heat sink, keeping the state's North Shore area relatively cooler in the summer and warmer in the winter.[9] While this effect is marked near the lake, it does not reach very far inland. For example, Grand Marais on the lakeshore has an average July high temperature of 70 °F (21 °C), while Virginia, at about the same latitude but inland about 100 miles (161 km) to the west, has an average July high of 77 °F (25 °C). Conversely, Virginia's average high temperature in January is 15 °F (−9 °C), while Grand Marais' is 23 °F (−5 °C).[10] Just a few miles inland from Lake Superior are the Sawtooth Mountains, which largely confine the marine air masses and associated precipitation to lower elevations near the lake.[11]

The prevailing northwest winter winds also limit the lake's influence. Places near the shoreline can receive lake-effect snow, but because the state lies north and west of the lake, snowfall amounts are not nearly as large as they are in locations like Wisconsin and Michigan that lie downwind to the south.[8] Even so, the single largest snowstorm in Minnesota history was a lake effect event. On January 6, 1994 Finland, Minnesota, received 36 inches (91 cm) of lake effect snow in 24 hours, and 47 inches (119 cm) over a three day period. Both are Minnesota records. At 85 inches (216 cm) per year, the port city of Duluth has the highest average snowfall total of any city in Minnesota.[12] At 58.9 °F (14.9 °C), Grand Marais has the lowest average summer temperature of any city in the state.[13]

The climatological effects of Lake Superior tend to stifle convection, thus limiting the potential for tornadoes.[7] Although Cook and Lakecounties are two of the largest counties in the state, they have experienced only 7 tornadoes in the past 56 years.[14] One of those tornadoes was a large F3 that occurred in the 1969 Minnesota tornado outbreak.


Source : http://en.wikipedia.org/



Tuesday, February 15, 2011

Egyptian Army

The Egyptian Army is the largest service branch within the Egyptian military establishment and holds power in the current Egyptian government. It is estimated to number around 468,000, in addition to 480,000 reservists for a total of 948,000 strong.[2] The modern army was created in the 1830s, and during the twentieth century has fought four wars with Israel (in 1948, 1956, 1967, and 1973). Furthermore, in 1991 Egyptian units took part in Operation Desert Storm, the liberation of Kuwait from Iraqi occupation.

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The modern Egyptian army was formed in the 1830s by Muhammad Ali of Egypt. He sought to split Egypt away from the Ottoman Empire, and to do this he brought in European weapons and expertise and built an army that defeated the Sultan andseized control over Egypt, Syria, and parts of Arabia.[3] The Egyptian Army was involved in the following wars during the Muhammad Ali Dynasty:

But the Europeans intervened on the Sultan's behalf, and following their intercession the Egyptian army languished until Britain took control of Egypt in the 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War. Egypt was involved in the long-running 1881-99 Mahdist War in the Sudan.

In 1946, the British officers were ousted and Egyptians took full control.[4] The Free Officers Movement of the Army, masterminded by Nasser seized power from KingFarouk of Egypt in the Egyptian Revolution of 1952. During the Cold War, the army actively fought in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the 1956 Suez Crisis, the North Yemen Civil War from 1962 to 1967, the 1967 Six Day War, the 1969-1970 War of Attrition, the 1973 Yom Kippur War, and the 1977 Libyan–Egyptian War.

Within three months of sending troops to Yemen in 1962, Nasser realized that this would require a larger commitment than anticipated. By early 1963, he would begin a four-year quest to extricate Egyptian forces from Yemen, using an unsuccessful face-saving mechanism, only to find himself committing more troops. A little less than 5,000 troops were sent in October 1962. Two months later, Egypt had 15,000 regular troops deployed. By late 1963, the number was increased to 36,000; and in late 1964, the number rose to 50,000 Egyptian troops in Yemen. Late 1965 represented the high-water mark of Egyptian troop commitment in Yemen at 55,000 troops, which were broken into 13 infantry regiments of one artillery division, one tank division and several Special Forces as well as paratroop regiments. All the Egyptian field commanders complained of a total lack of topographical maps causing a real problem in the first months of the war.


Before the June 1967 War, the army divided its personnel into four regional commands (Suez, Sinai, Nile Delta, and Nile Valley up to the Sudan).[5] The remainder of Egypt's territory, over 75%, was the sole responsibility of the Frontier Corps. After the 1967 debacle, the army was reorganized into two field armies, the Second Army and the Third Army, both of which were stationed in the eastern part of the country.

It has been argued that only the relatively good performance of the Egyptian Army in the 1973 war, especially in the Suez Crossing and in theBattle of Suez, which allowed the Egyptians to claim a level of victory and take part in the 1977 Camp David Accords without losing face. Yet despite the impressive crossing of the Suez Canal (Operation Badr), The army had an estimated strength of 320,000 in 1989. About 180,000 of these were conscripts.[6] Beyond the Second Army and Third Army in the east, most of the remaining troops were stationed in the Nile Delta region, around the upper Nile, and along the Libyan border. These troops were organized into eight military districts. Commando and paratroop units were stationed near Cairo under central control but could be transferred quickly to one of the field armies if needed. District commanders, who generally held the rank of major general, maintained liaison with governors and other civil authorities on matters of domestic security.

Decision making in the army continued to be highly centralized during the 1980s.[6] Officers below brigade level rarely made tactical decisions and required the approval of higher-ranking authorities before they modified any operations. Senior army officers were aware of this situation and began taking steps to encourage initiative at the lower levels of command. A shortage of well-trained enlisted personnel became a serious problem for the army as it adopted increasingly complex weapons systems. Observers estimated in 1986 that 75 percent of all conscripts were illiterate when they entered the military.

Since the 1980s the army has built closer and closer ties with the United States, as evidenced in the bi-annual Operation Bright Starexercises. This cooperation eased integration of the Egyptian Army into the Gulf War coalition of 1990-91, during which the Egyptian II Corps under Maj. Gen. Salah Mohamed Attia Halaby, with 3rd Mechanised Division and 4th Armoured Division, fought as part of the Arab Joint Forces Command North.[7]

The Army conducted Exercise Badr '96 in 1996 in the Sinai.[8] The exercises in the Sinai were part of a larger exercise that involved 35,000 men in total. According to Arabic Wikipedia, the army was able to transfer half the equipment to the Egyptian army in Sinai in six hours and was able to reach a state of alert in eleven minutes.

Today conscripts without a college degree serve three years as enlisted soldiers.[citation needed] Conscripts with a General Secondary School Degree serve two years as enlisted soldiers. Conscripts with a college degree serve one year as enlisted or three years as a reserve officer.


Egypt's varied army weapons inventory complicates logistical support for the army. National policy since the 1970s has included the creation of a domestic arms industry (including the Arab Organization for Industrialization) capable of indigenous maintenance and upgrades to existing equipment, with the ultimate aim of Egyptian production of major ground systems.[9] This target was finally met with the commencement of M-1 Abrams production in 1992.[10] (Egypt had received permission to build an M-1 factory in 1984.) Prior to this, large acquisitions had included nearly 700 M-60A1 main battle tanks from the US from March 1990, as well as nearly 500 Hellfire anti-tank guided missiles.

Cairo Fire

The Cairo Fire (Arabic: حريق القاهرة‎), also known as Black Saturday,[3][4] was a series of riotsthat took place on 26 January 1952, marked by the burning and looting of buildings in Downtown Cairo. The direct trigger of the riots was the killing by British occupation troops of 50 Egyptianauxiliary policemen in the city of Ismaïlia in a one-sided battle a day earlier.[4] The spontaneous anti-British protests that followed these deaths were quickly seized upon by organized elements in the crowd, who burned and ransacked large sectors of Cairo amidst the unexplained absence of security forces.[3] The perpetrators of the Cairo Fire remain unknown to this day, and the truth about this important event in modern Egyptian history has yet to be established.[5] The disorder that befell Cairo during the 1952 fire has recently been compared to the chaos that followed theanti-government protests of 28 January 2011, which saw genuine demonstrations take place amidst massive arson and looting, an inexplicable withdrawal of the police and organized prison-breaking.[6]

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In 1952, the British military occupation of Egypt was entering its 70th year, but was limited to the Suez Canal zone. On the morning of 25 January 1952, Brigadier Exham, the British commander, issued a warning to Egyptian policemen in Ismaïlia, demanding that they surrender their weapons and leave the canal zone entirely. By doing so, the British aimed to get rid of the only manifestation of Egyptian governmental authority in the canal zone. They also wanted to end the aid the police force was providing to the anti-British fedayeen groups. The Ismailia Governorate refused the British request, a refusal that was reiterated by interior minister Fouad Serageddin. As a result, 7,000 British soldiers equipped with machine guns, tanks and armour surrounded the governorate building and its barracks, where nearly 700 Egyptian officers and soldiers sought refuge. Armed only with rifles, the Egyptians refused to surrender their weapons. The British commander thus ordered his troops to bombard the buildings. Vastly outnumbered, the Egyptians continued to fight until running out of ammunition. The confrontation, which lasted two hours, left 50 Egyptians dead and 80 others injured. The rest were taken captive.[7]

The following day, news of the attack in Ismaïlia reached Cairo, provoking the ire of Egyptians. The unrest began at Almaza Airport, when workers there refused to provide services to four British airplanes. It was followed by the rebellion of policemen in the Abbaseya barracks, who wished to express their solidarity with their dead and captured colleagues in Ismaïlia. Protesters then headed towards the university building, where they were joined by students. Together they marched towards the Prime Minister's office to demand that Egypt break its diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom and declare war on it. Abdul Fattah Hassan, the Minister of Social Affairs, told them that the Wafdistgovernment wished to do so, but faced opposition from King Farouk I. As a result, protesters went to Abdeen Palace where they were joined by students from Al-Azhar. The crowd expressed its discontent towards the king, his partisans and the British.[8]

The first act of arson took place in Opera Square, with the burning of Casino Opera. The fire spread to Shepheard's Hotel, the Automobile Club, Barclays Bank, as well as other shops, corporate offices, movie theaters, hotels and banks.[8] Fueled by anti-British and anti-Western sentiment, the mob concentrated on British property and establishments with foreign connections,[3] as well as buildings popularly associated with Western influence.[4] Nightclubs and other estalishments frequented by King Farouk I were equally targeted. The fires also reached the neighbourhoods of Faggala, Daher, Citadel, as well as Tahrir Square and Cairo Train Station Square. Due to the prevailing chaos, theft and looting occurred, until the Egyptian Army arrived shortly before sunset and managed to restore order.[8] The Army was alerted belatedly, after most of the damage had already occurred.[3]


Most of the destruction, the extent of which was unforeseen by everyone,[3] occurred between 12:30 pm and 11 pm.[1] A total of £3.4 million damage was done to British and foreign property.[3] Nearly 300 shops were destroyed, including some of Egypt's most famous department stores, such as Cicurel, Omar Effendi and the Salon Vert. The damage tally also included 30 corporate offices, 13 hotels (among which Shepheard's, Metropolitan and Victoria), 40 movie theaters (among which Rivoli, Radio, Metro, Diana and Miami), eight auto shows, 10 arm shops, 73 coffeehouses and restaurants (including Groppi's), 92 bars and 16 social clubs. As for the human casualties, 26 people died and 552 suffered injuries such as burns and bone fractures. Thousands of workers were displaced due to the destruction of the aforementioned establishments.[1]


The events were seen at the time as evidence of the Egyptian government's inability to maintain order.[4] They almost caused another British military occupation, although this outcome was averted by the Egyptian Army's restoration of order.[3] Prime Minister Mustafa el-Nahhasinitially presented his resignation, which was refused by King Farouk I.[9] The Wafdist government of el-Nahhas and the king blamed each other for the failure to call in troops earlier.[3] The Council of Ministers imposed martial law throughout the country, and ordered the closure of schools and universities. El-Nahhas was appointed military commander-in-chief, and proclaimed a curfew in Cairo and Giza from 6 pm to 6 am. He also issued an order banning public gatherings of five or more persons, with offenders facing imprisonment.[9]

The king was holding a banquet at Abdeen Palace for nearly 2,000 military officers when the disturbances took place.[9] The banquet had been organized to celebrate the birth of his son Ahmad Fuad.[5] The following day, the king dismissed the Wafdist government, a decision which slightly eased tensions with the British.[9] However, the series of short-lived cabinets he appointed afterward failed to restore public confidence in the monarchy.[4] The resultant political and domestic instability throughout the ensuing six months was among the factors that paved the way for the Free Officers coup.[2] The Cairo Fire pushed the Free Officers to advance the date of their planned coup, which took place on 23 July 1952.[9] The coup resulted in the forced abdication of Farouk I and the abolition of the monarchy a year later. It also reignited anti-British hostilities, which led to the signing of the Anglo-Egyptian Evacuation Agreement in 1954. The last British soldier stationed in Egypt left the country on 18 June 1956.[9]


No one was arrested during the disorder.[8] It appears that there were organized elements in the crowd, both left-wing and right-wing.[3]According to official sources as well as eyewitnesses, the disturbances had been masterminded beforehand, and the groups responsible for it were highly skilled and trained. This was evidenced by the speed and precision with which the fires were ignited. The perpetrators held tools to force open closed doors, and used acetylene stoves to melt steel barriers placed on windows and doors. They executed their plan in record time through the use of nearly 30 cars.[10] The timing was also another clear indication of the careful planning behind the arson. Saturday afternoon was chosen due to the weekend closure of offices and department stores, as well as the post-matinée closure of movie theaters.[1]

Although some of the country's politicians may have been implicated in the initial outbreak of violence,[3] it has never been fully determined who started the Cairo Fire.[4] Historians still disagree about the identity of the initiators of the disturbances, leading to several conspiracy theories.[5] Some believe King Farouk I masterminded the disorder to get rid of the government of el-Nahhas. Others support the idea that the British instigated the chaos to punish the government of el-Nahhas for its unilateral abrogation of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty in 1951.[10]Alternative theories put the blame on the Muslim Brotherhood or the Egyptian Socialist Party, formerly known as Misr al-Fatat.[4]Nevertheless, no material evidence has ever appeared to incriminate a specific group. Following the 23 July 1952 coup, an inquiry was opened to investigate the circumstances surrounding the Cairo Fire, but failed to identify the real perpetrators. The Cairo Fire thus remains an unsolved mystery.[10]